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Finns

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This article is about the Baltic Finnic ethnic group indigenous to Finland. For other uses, see Finn (disambiguation).
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Finns
Background information
Total population c. 6–7 million[a]
Regions with significant populations Finland       c. 4.7–5.1 million[1][2][3][4][b]
Other significant population centers:
'
United States 653,222[5]
Sweden 156,045[6][c]–712,000[7][d]
(including Tornedalians)
Canada 143,645[8]
Russia 127,600
(with all Karelians)[lower-alpha 1][9]
34,300
(with Ingrian Finns)
Australia 7,939[10]
Norway 15,000–60,000
(including Forest Finns
and Kvens)[11][12]
France
Germany 33,000 (2022)[13]
United Kingdom 15,000–30,000[14]
Spain 12,961 (in 2016)[15]
(up to 40,000
part-year residents)[16]
Estonia 8,260[17]
France 7,000[18]
Netherlands 5,000[19]
Italy 4,000[20]
Switzerland 3,800[21]
Brazil 3,100[22]
Denmark 3,000[23]
Belgium 3,000[24]
Other countries
Greece 1,600[25]
Thailand 1,500–2,000[26]
United Arab Emirates 1,500[27]
China 1,500[28][29]
Ireland 1,200[30]
Portugal 1,157[31]
Austria 1,000 (in 2001)[32]
Poland 1,000[33]
Japan 800[34]
Singapore 700[35]
Israel 700[36]
New Zealand 573 (in 2013)[37]
Cyprus 500[38]
Argentina 150–200
Uruguay 100
Languages Finnish and its dialects
Religion Predominantly Lutheranism or irreligious, Eastern Orthodox minority[39]
Related ethnic groups Sámi, Balts, and other Baltic Finns
Especially Karelians, Forest Finns, Ingrian Finns, Kvens, and Tornedalians

Finns or Finnish people (Template:Lang-fi, Template:IPA-fi) are a Baltic Finnic[40] ethnic group native to Finland.[41]

Finns are traditionally divided into smaller regional groups that span several countries adjacent to Finland, both those who are native to these countries as well as those who have resettled. Some of these may be classified as separate ethnic groups, rather than subgroups of Finns. These include the Kvens and Forest Finns in Norway, the Tornedalians in Sweden, and the Ingrian Finns in Russia.

Finnish, the language spoken by Finns, is closely related to other Balto-Finnic languages, e.g. Estonian and Karelian. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger Uralic family of languages, which also includes Hungarian. These languages are markedly different from most other languages spoken in Europe, which belong to the Indo-European family of languages. Native Finns can also be divided according to dialect into subgroups sometimes called heimo (lit. tribe), although such divisions have become less important due to internal migration.

Today, there are approximately 6–7 million ethnic Finns and their descendants worldwide, with the majority of them living in their native Finland and the surrounding countries, namely Sweden, Russia and Norway. An overseas Finnish diaspora has long been established in the countries of the Americas and Oceania, with the population of primarily immigrant background, namely Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Brazil, and the United States.

Subgroups[]

The Population Register Centre maintains information on the birthplace, citizenship and mother tongue of the people living in Finland, but does not specifically categorize any as Finns by ethnicity.[42]

Balto-Finnic peoples[]

Main article: Baltic Finns

The majority of people living in Finland consider Finnish to be their first language. According to Statistics Finland, of the country's total population of 5,503,297 at the end of 2016, 88.3% (or 4,857,795) considered Finnish to be their native language.[43] It is not known how many of the ethnic Finns living outside Finland speak Finnish as their first language.

In addition to the Finnish-speaking inhabitants of Finland, the Kvens (people of Finnish descent in Norway), the Tornedalians (people of Finnish descent in northernmost Sweden), and the Karelians in the Republic of Karelia and Evangelical Lutheran Ingrian Finns (both in the northwestern Russian Federation), as well as Finnish expatriates in various countries, are Baltic Finns.

Finns have been traditionally divided into sub-groups (heimot in Finnish) along regional, dialectical or ethnographical lines. These subgroups include the people of Finland Proper (varsinaissuomalaiset), Satakunta (satakuntalaiset), Tavastia (hämäläiset), Savonia (savolaiset), Karelia (karjalaiset) and Ostrobothnia (pohjalaiset). These sub-groups express regional self-identity with varying frequency and significance.

There are a number of distinct dialects (murre s. murteet pl. in Finnish) of the Finnish language spoken in Finland, although the exclusive use of the standard Finnish (yleiskieli)—both in its formal written (kirjakieli) and more casual spoken (puhekieli) form—in Finnish schools, in the media, and in popular culture, along with internal migration and urbanization, have considerably diminished the use of regional varieties, especially since the middle of the 20th century. Historically, there were three dialects: the South-Western (Lounaismurteet), Tavastian (Hämeen murre), and Karelian (Karjalan murre). These and neighboring languages mixed with each other in various ways as the population spread out, and evolved into the Southern Ostrobothnian (Etelä-Pohjanmaan murre), Central Ostrobothnian (Keski-Pohjanmaan murre), Northern Ostrobothnian (Pohjois-Pohjanmaan murre), Far-Northern (Peräpohjolan murre), Savonian (Savon murre), and South-Eastern (Kaakkois-Suomen murteet) aka South Karelian (Karjalan murre) dialects.

Sweden Finns[]

Main article: Sweden Finns

The Sweden Finns are either native to Sweden or have emigrated from Finland to Sweden. An estimated 450,000 first- or second-generation immigrants from Finland live in Sweden, of which approximately half speak Finnish. The majority moved from Finland to Sweden following the Second World War, contributing and taking advantage of the rapidly expanding Swedish economy. This emigration peaked in 1970 and has been declining since. There is also a native Finnish-speaking minority in Sweden, the Tornedalians in the border area in the extreme north of Sweden. The Finnish language has official status as one of five minority languages in Sweden, but only in the five northernmost municipalities in Sweden.

Other groups[]

The term Finns is also used for other Baltic Finns, including Izhorians in Ingria, Karelians in Karelia and Veps in the former Veps National Volost, all in Russia. Among these groups, the Karelians is the most populous one, followed by the Ingrians. According to a 2002 census, it was found that Ingrians also identify with Finnish ethnic identity, referring to themselves as Ingrian Finns.[44]

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Terminology[]

 This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2021)

The Finnish term for Finns is suomalaiset (sing. suomalainen).

It is a matter of debate how best to designate the Finnish-speakers of Sweden, all of whom have migrated to Sweden from Finland. Terms used include Sweden Finns and Finnish Swedes, with a distinction almost always made between more recent Finnish immigrants, most of whom have arrived after World War II, and Tornedalians, who have lived along what is now the Swedish-Finnish border since the 15th century.[45] The term "Finn" occasionally also has the meaning "a member of a people speaking Finnish or a Finnic language".

Etymology[]

19th century consciously sought to define the Finnish people through depiction of the common people's everyday lives in art, such as this painting by .

19th century Fennomans consciously sought to define the Finnish people through depiction of the common people's everyday lives in art, such as this painting by Akseli Gallen-Kallela.

Historical references to Northern Europe are scarce, and the names given to its peoples and geographic regions are obscure; therefore, the etymologies of the names are questionable. Such names as Fenni, Phinnoi, Finnum, and Skrithfinni / Scridefinnum appear in a few written texts starting from about two millennia ago in association with peoples located in a northern part of Europe, but the real meaning of these terms is debatable. It has been suggested that this non-Uralic ethnonym is of Germanic language origin and related to such words as finthan (Old High German) 'find', 'notice'; fanthian (Old High German) 'check', 'try'; and fendo (Old High German) and vende (Old Middle German) 'pedestrian', 'wanderer'.[46] Another etymological interpretation associates this ethnonym with fen in a more toponymical approach. Yet another theory postulates that the words Finn and Kven are cognates. The Icelandic Eddas and Norse sagas (11th to 14th centuries), some of the oldest written sources probably originating from the closest proximity, use words like finnr and finnas inconsistently. However, most of the time they seem to mean northern dwellers with a mobile life style. Current linguistic research supports the hypothesis of an etymological link between the Finnish and the Sami languages and other modern Uralic languages. It also supports the hypothesis of a common etymological origin of the toponyms Sápmi (Sami for Lapland) and Suomi (Finnish for Finland) and the Finnish and Sami names for the Finnish and Sami languages (suomi and saame). Current research has disproved older hypotheses about connections with the names Häme (Finnish for Tavastia)[46] and the proto-Baltic word *žeme / Slavic земля (zemlja) meaning 'land'.[46][47] This research also supports the earlier hypothesis that the designation Suomi started out as the designation for Southwestern Finland (Finland Proper, Varsinais-Suomi) and later for their language and later for the whole area of modern Finland. But it is not known how, why, and when this occurred. Petri Kallio had suggested that the name Suomi may bear even earlier Indo-European echoes with the original meaning of either "land" or "human",[48] but he has since disproved his hypothesis.[47]

The first known mention of Finns is in the Old English poem Widsith which was compiled in the 10th century, though its contents are believed to be older. Among the first written sources possibly designating western Finland as the land of Finns are also two rune stones. One of these is in Söderby, Sweden, with the inscription finlont (U 582), and the other is in Gotland, a Swedish island in the Baltic Sea, with the inscription finlandi (G 319 M) dating from the 11th century.[49]

History[]

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Man's costume during the according to the archeological finds from . Interpretation from 1889

Man's costume during the Iron Age according to the archeological finds from Tuukkala. Interpretation from 1889.[50]

Origins[]

As other Western Uralic and Baltic Finnic peoples, Finns originated between the Volga, Oka, and Kama rivers in what is now Russia. The genetic basis of future Finns also emerged in this area.[51] There have been at least two noticeable waves of migration to the west by the ancestors of Finns. They began to move upstream of the Dnieper and from there to the upper reaches of the Väinäjoki (Daugava), from where they eventually moved along the river towards the Baltic Sea in 1250–1000 years BC. The second wave of migration brought the main group of ancestors of Finns from the Baltic Sea to the southwest coast of Finland in the 8th century BC.[52][53]

During the 80–100 generations of the migration, Finnish language changed its form, although it retained its Finno-Ugric roots. Material culture also changed during the transition, although the Baltic Finnic culture that formed on the shores of the Baltic Sea constantly retained its roots in a way that distinguished it from its neighbors.[52][54]

Finnish material culture became independent of the wider Baltic Finnic culture in the 6th and 7th centuries, and by the turn of the 8th century the culture of metal objects that had prevailed in Finland had developed in its own way.[52][55] The same era can be considered to be broadly the date of the birth of the independent Finnish language, although its prehistory, like other Baltic Finnic languages, extends far into the past.[55]

Language[]

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Väinämöisen soitto (Väinämöinen's Play) by . The painting is a depiction of playing the kantele.

Väinämöisen soitto (Väinämöinen's Play) by R. W. Ekman. The painting is a depiction of Väinämöinen playing the kantele.

Just as uncertain are the possible mediators and the timelines for the development of the Uralic majority language of the Finns. On the basis of comparative linguistics, it has been suggested that the separation of the Finnic and the Sami languages took place during the 2nd millennium BC, and that the Proto-Uralic roots of the entire language group date from about the 6th to the 8th millennium BC. When the Uralic languages were first spoken in the area of contemporary Finland is debated.[Citation needed] It is thought that Proto-Finnic (the proto-language of the Finnic languages) was not spoken in modern Finland, because the maximum divergence of the daughter languages occurs in modern-day Estonia. Therefore, Finnish was already a separate language when arriving in Finland. Furthermore, the traditional Finnish lexicon has a large number of words (about one-third) without a known etymology, hinting at the existence of a disappeared Paleo-European language; these include toponyms such as niemi "peninsula".[Citation needed] Because the Finnish language itself reached a written form only in the 16th century, little primary data remains of early Finnish life. For example, the origins of such cultural icons as the sauna, and the kantele (an instrument of the zither family) have remained rather obscure.[Citation needed]

Livelihood[]

Peasants toiling at a slash-and-burn site in , Eastern Finland.

Peasants toiling at a slash-and-burn site in Lapinlahti, Eastern Finland.

Agriculture supplemented by fishing and hunting has been the traditional livelihood among Finns. Slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced in the forest-covered east by Eastern Finns up to the 19th century. Agriculture, along with the language, distinguishes Finns from the Sámi, who retained the hunter-gatherer lifestyle longer and moved to coastal fishing and reindeer herding.[Citation needed] Following industrialization and modernization of Finland, most Finns were urbanized and employed in modern service and manufacturing occupations, with agriculture becoming a minor employer (see Economy of Finland).

Religion[]

, an apocryphal character from Finnish history, is one of the earliest known Finns. According to legend, he killed with an ax on the ice of

Lalli, an apocryphal character from Finnish history, is one of the earliest known Finns. According to legend, he killed Bishop Henry with an ax on the ice of Lake Köyliö.[56]

A peasant girl and a woman in traditional dress from , Eastern Finland, as depicted by in 1882

A peasant girl and a woman in traditional dress from Ruokolahti, Eastern Finland, as depicted by Template:Ill in 1882

Christianity spread to Finland from the Medieval times onward and original native traditions of Finnish paganism have become extinct. [Citation needed]Finnish paganism combined various layers of Finnic, Norse, Germanic and Baltic paganism. Finnic Jumala was some sort of sky-god and is shared with Estonia. Belief of a thunder-god, Ukko or Perkele, may have Baltic origins.[Citation needed] Elements had their own protectors, such as Ahti for waterways and Tapio for forests. Local animistic deities, "haltia", which resemble Scandinavian tomte, were also given offerings to, and bear worship was also known.[Citation needed] Finnish neopaganism or "suomenusko" attempts to revive these traditions.[Citation needed]

Christianity was introduced to Finns and Karelians from the east[Citation needed], in the form of Eastern Orthodoxy from the Medieval times onwards. However, Swedish kings conquered western parts of Finland in the late 13th century, imposing Roman Catholicism. Reformation in Sweden had the important effect that bishop Mikael Agricola, a student of Martin Luther's, introduced written Finnish, and literacy became common during the 18th century. When Finland became independent, it was overwhelmingly Lutheran Protestant. A small number of Eastern Orthodox Finns were also included, thus the Finnish government recognized both religions as "national religions". In 2017 70.9% of the population of Finland belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, 1.1% to the Finnish Orthodox Church, 1.6% to other religious groups and 26.3% had no religious affiliation[Citation needed]. Whereas, in Russian Ingria, there were both Lutheran and Orthodox Finns; the former were identified as Ingrian Finns while the latter were considered Izhorians or Karelians[Citation needed].

Subdivisions[]

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Finns are traditionally assumed to originate from two different populations speaking different dialects of Proto-Finnic (kantasuomi). Thus, a division into Western Finnish and Eastern Finnish is made. Further, there are subgroups, traditionally called heimo,[57][58] according to dialects and local culture. Although ostensibly based on late Iron Age settlement patterns, the heimos have been constructed according to dialect during the rise of nationalism in the 19th century.

  • Western[59]
    • Southwest Finland and Satakunta: Finns proper (varsinaissuomalaiset)
    • Tavastia: Tavastians (hämäläiset)
    • Ostrobothnia: Ostrobothnians (pohjalaiset)
      • Southern Ostrobothnians (eteläpohjalaiset)
      • Central Ostrobothnians (keskipohjalaiset)
      • Northern Ostrobothnians (pohjoispohjalaiset)
    • Lapland: Lapland Finns (lappilaiset)
  • Eastern
    • Karelia: Finnish Karelians (karjalaiset); Karelian dialects of Finnish are distinct from the Karelian language spoken in Russia, and most of North Karelia actually speak Savonian dialects
    • Savonia: Savonians (savolaiset)
    • Kainuu: Kainuu Finns (kainuulaiset)
  • Finnish minority groups outside Finland
    • Tornedalians (länsipohjalaiset) of Norrbotten, Sweden
    • Forest Finns (metsäsuomalaiset) of Sweden and Norway
    • Kvens (kveenit) of Finnmark, Norway
    • Ingrian Finns (inkerinsuomalaiset) of Ingria, Russia
  • Finnish diaspora (ulkosuomalaiset)
    • Sweden Finns (ruotsinsuomalaiset), Finnish minority in Sweden

The historical provinces of Finland can be seen to approximate some of these divisions. The regions of Finland, another remnant of a past governing system, can be seen to reflect a further manifestation of a local identity.

Journalist Template:Interlanguage link toured Finland in 1984 and looked into people's traditional and contemporary understanding of the heimos, listing them as follows: Tavastians (hämäläiset), Ostrobothnians (pohjalaiset), Lapland Finns (lappilaiset), Finns proper (varsinaissuomalaiset), Savonians (savolaiset), Kainuu Finns (kainuulaiset), and Finnish Karelians (karjalaiset).[60]

Today the importance of the tribal (heimo) identity generally depends on the region. It is strongest among the Karelians, Savonians and South Ostrobothnians.[61]

Genetics[]

The European genetic structure (based on 273,464 SNPs)

The European genetic structure (based on 273,464 SNPs).[62]

The use of mitochondrial "mtDNA" (female lineage) and Y-chromosomal "Y-DNA" (male lineage) DNA-markers in tracing back the history of human populations has been gaining ground in ethnographic studies of Finnish people (e.g. the National Geographic Genographic Project[63] and the Suomi DNA-projekti.) Haplogroup U5 is estimated to be the oldest major mtDNA haplogroup in Europe and is found in the whole of Europe at a low frequency, but seems to be found in significantly higher levels among Finns, Estonians and the Sami people.[63] The older population of European hunter-gatherers that lived across large parts of Europe before the early farmers appeared are outside the genetic variation of modern populations, but most similar to Finns.[64]

With regard to the Y-chromosome, the most common haplogroups of the Finns are N1c (58%), I1a (28%), R1a (5%), and R1b (3.5%).[65] N1c, which is found mainly in a few countries in Europe (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia), is a subgroup of the haplogroup N distributed across northern Eurasia and suggested to have entered Europe from Siberia.[66]

Finns have the smallest genetic distance to Karelians, a fellow Balto-Finnic group.[67][68] Finns and Karelians have been noted to form a cluster with another Balto-Finnic people, the Veps.[69][68][70] They show relative affinity to Northern Russians as well,[69][71] who are known to be at least partially descended from Finno-Ugric-speakers.[68]

When not compared to these groups, Finns have been found to cluster apart from their neighboring populations, forming outlier clusters.[72] They are shifted away from the cline that most Europeans belong to[73] towards geographically distant Uralic-speakers like the Mari (while remaining genetically distant from them as well).[74] The Balto-Finnic Estonians are among the genetically closest populations of Finns, but they are drawn towards the Lithuanians and Latvians. Swedes, while being distinct from the Finns, are also closer to Finns than most European populations.[75][76][77]

Share of 1–2 cM IBD segments of Uralic speakers (Tambets et al 2018).

Share of 1–2 cM IBD segments of Uralic speakers (Tambets et al 2018).

Finns being an outlier population has to do with Finns having a homogenous and East Eurasian influenced gene pool.[72] Autosomal genetic analyses have found that Finns, apart from their genome being mostly European, also share up to 10% of their genes with Siberian populations.[78] The specific Siberian-like ancestry is suggested to have arrived in Northern Europe during the early Iron Age, linked to the arrival of Uralic languages.[68][79] Finns share more identity-by-descent (IBD) segments with several other Uralic-speaking peoples, including groups like Estonians, the Sami and the geographically distant Nganasans from Siberia, than with their Indo-European-speaking neighbours.[68]

Finns are divided into different sub-clusters. The genetic substructure is related to the later settlement of Eastern Finland by a small number of Finns, who then had different founder and bottleneck effects and experienced genetic drift.[80] Variation within Finns is, according to fixation index (FST) values, exceptional in Europe. Greatest intra-Finnish FST distance is found about 60; for comparison, greatest intra-Swedish FST distance is about 25.[76][77] FST distances between for example Germans, French and Hungarians is only 10.[75] Thus Finns from different parts of the country are more remote from each other genetically compared to many European peoples between themselves.[81] This is noticeable in the distances from other Europeans, as the isolation is even more profound in Eastern Finns than in Western Finns.[76] A difference can also be seen in distribution of the two major Y-DNA haplogroups of Finland: N1c, common in both Eastern Finland and Western Finland, and I1a, which is common among Western Finns but remarkably less so in Eastern Finland.[82][65] According to more detailed estimations, the frequencies of N1c and I1a are 70.9% and 19.6% in northeastern Finland, but 41.3% and 41.3% in southwestern Finland, respectively.[83] This suggests that there is also an additional Western component in the Western Finnish gene pool.[84] Despite the differences, the IBS analysis points out that Western and Eastern Finns share overall a largely similar genetic foundation.[80][85]

Theories of the origins of Finns[]

Modern distribution of

Modern distribution of Uralic languages

In the 19th century, the Finnish researcher Matthias Castrén prevailed with the theory that "the original home of Finns" was in west-central Siberia.[86]

Until the 1970s, most linguists believed that Finns arrived in Finland as late as the first century AD. However, accumulating archaeological data suggests that the area of contemporary Finland had been inhabited continuously since the end of the ice age, contrary to the earlier idea that the area had experienced long uninhabited intervals. The hunter-gatherer Sámi were pushed into the more remote northern regions.[87]

A hugely controversial theory is so-called refugia. This was proposed in the 1990s by Kalevi Wiik, a professor emeritus of phonetics at the University of Turku. According to this theory, Finno-Ugric speakers spread north as the Ice age ended. They populated central and northern Europe, while Basque speakers populated western Europe. As agriculture spread from the southeast into Europe, the Indo-European languages spread among the hunter-gatherers. In this process, both the hunter-gatherers speaking Finno-Ugric and those speaking Basque learned how to cultivate land and became Indo-Europeanized. According to Wiik, this is how the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic languages were formed. The linguistic ancestors of modern Finns did not switch their language due to their isolated location.[88] The main supporters of Wiik's theory are Professor Ago Künnap of the University of Tartu, Professor Kyösti Julku of the University of Oulu and Associate Professor Angela Marcantonio of the University of Rome. Wiik has not presented his theories in peer-reviewed scientific publications. Many scholars in Finno-Ugrian studies have strongly criticized the theory. Professor Raimo Anttila, Petri Kallio and brothers Ante and Aslak Aikio have rejected Wiik's theory with strong words, hinting strongly to pseudoscience, and even alt-right political biases among Wiik's supporters.[87][89] Moreover, some dismissed the entire idea of refugia, due to the existence even today of arctic and subarctic peoples. The most heated debate took place in the Finnish journal Kaltio during autumn 2002. Since then, the debate has calmed, each side retaining their positions.[90] Genotype analyses across the greater European genetic landscape have provided some credibility to the theory of the Last Glacial Maximum refugia.[91][92][93][94][95] But this does not in any way corroborate or prove that these 'refugia' spoke Uralic/Finnic, as it belies wholly independent variables that are not necessarily coeval (i.e. language spreads and genetic expansions can occur independently, at different times and in different directions).

See also[]

Portal-puzzle Finland portal
  • Demographics of Finland
  • Finnic (disambiguation)
  • Finnish (disambiguation)
  • Finnish language
  • Finnish Americans
  • Finnish Brazilians
  • Finnish Canadians
  • Finnish Australians
  • Finnish immigration to North America
  • List of Finns

Explanatory notes[]

  1. ↑ East Karelians are generally considered to be a closely related but separate ethnic group from Finns, rather than a regional subgroup. Not only because of their Eastern Orthodox faith, but also because of their language and ethnic identity.

References[]

  1. ↑ "Population". Statistics Finland. http://tilastokeskus.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure. "Persons with Finnish background: 5,115,300
    Native Finnish speakers: 4,778,490"     
  2. ↑ "Suomen ennakkoväkiluku tammikuun lopussa 5 402 758" (in fi). Statistics Finland. http://www.stat.fi/til/vamuu/2012/01/vamuu_2012_01_2012-02-21_tie_001_fi.html. 
  3. ↑ "Preliminary population statistics". Statistics Finland. 23 March 2021. https://www.stat.fi/til/vamuu/2021/02/vamuu_2021_02_2021-03-23_tie_001_en.html. 
  4. ↑ "The World Factbook – Finland". Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/finland/. "Finns 93.4%, Swede 5.6%, other 1% (2006)." 
  5. ↑ "Table B04006 – People Reporting Ancestry – 2019 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Ancestry&t=Ancestry&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B04006. 
  6. ↑ "Foreign-born persons by country of birth and year". Statistics Sweden. http://www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/en/ssd/START__BE__BE0101__BE0101E/UtrikesFoddaR/table/tableViewLayout2/?rxid=97e2f9aa-396b-4a7b-9f64-ca87958ed76b. 
  7. ↑ "Fler med finsk bakgrund i Sverige" (in sv). Sveriges Radio. 22 February 2013. http://sverigesradio.se/sida/gruppsida.aspx?programid=185&grupp=16837&artikel=5451293. 
  8. ↑ Statistics Canada. "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D. 
  9. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). Demoscope Weekly. 30 June 2016. http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nation.php. 
  10. ↑ Australian Government – Department of Immigration and Border Protection. "Finnish Australians". http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/textversion/finland.htm. 
  11. ↑ regionaldepartementet, Kommunal- og (8 December 2000). "St.meld. nr. 15 (2000–2001)". http://odin.dep.no/krd/norsk/dok/regpubl/stmeld/016001-040003/hov005-bn.html. 
  12. ↑ Saressalo, L. (1996), Kveenit. Tutkimus erään pohjoisnorjalaisen vähemmistön identiteetistä. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia, 638. Helsinki.
  13. ↑ "Bevölkerung in Privathaushalten nach Migrationshintergrund im weiteren Sinn nach ausgewählten Geburtsstaaten" (in de). Statistisches Bundesamt. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/migrationshintergrund-staatsangehoerigkeit-staaten.html. 
  14. ↑ "Kahdesta miljoonasta ulkosuomalaisesta suuri osa on "kateissa" – Ulkomailla asuvat ovat aina poikkeama tilastoissa" (in fi). YLE. https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9613474. 
  15. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Madrid. http://www.finlandia.es/public/default.aspx?nodeid=43418&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  16. ↑ "Paljonko suomalaisia asuu Espanjassa?" (in fi). Suomi-Espanja Seura. http://www.suomiespanjaseura.fi/fi/sosiaaliturva.php. 
  17. ↑ "Suomi Virossa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Tallinn. http://www.finland.ee/public/default.aspx?nodeid=40615&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  18. ↑ "Présentation de la Finlande". https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-pays/finlande/relations-bilaterales/. 
  19. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, The Hague. https://finlandabroad.fi/web/nld/kahdenvaliset-suhteet. 
  20. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Rome. http://www.finland.it/public/default.aspx?nodeid=44113&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  21. ↑ "Suomi Sveitsissä" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Bern. http://www.finlandia.ch/public/default.aspx?nodeid=41261. 
  22. ↑ "Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil". https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/. 
  23. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Copenhagen. http://www.finland.dk/public/default.aspx?nodeid=41622&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  24. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Brussels. http://www.finlande.be/public/default.aspx?nodeid=43064&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  25. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Athens. http://www.finland.gr/public/default.aspx?nodeid=42757&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  26. ↑ "Maatiedosto Thaimaa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Bangkok. http://www.finland.or.th/public/default.aspx?nodeid=43722&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  27. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy – Embassy of Finland, Abu Dhabi. http://www.finland.ae/public/default.aspx?nodeid=42992&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  28. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Beijing. http://www.finland.cn/public/default.aspx?nodeid=44131&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  29. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Consulate General of Finland, Hong Kong. http://www.finland.org.hk/public/default.aspx?nodeid=41510&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  30. ↑ "Embassy – Embassy of Finland, Dublin". http://www.finland.ie/public/default.aspx?nodeid=44607&contentlan=2&culture=en-GB. 
  31. ↑ "Sefstat". https://sefstat.sef.pt/Docs/Rifa2021.pdf. 
  32. ↑ "Suomi Itävallassa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Vienna. http://www.finnland.at/public/default.aspx?nodeid=35823&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  33. ↑ "Suomalaiset Puolassa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Warsaw. http://www.finland.pl/public/default.aspx?nodeid=40935&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  34. ↑ "Finland in Japan" (in en). Embassy of Finland, Tokyo. https://finlandabroad.fi/web/jpn/finland-in-japan1. 
  35. ↑ "Kahdenväliset suhteet" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Singapore. http://www.finland.org.sg/public/default.aspx?nodeid=42070&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  36. ↑ "Suomi Israelissa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Tel Aviv. http://www.finland.org.il/public/default.aspx?nodeid=39216&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  37. ↑ "2013 Census ethnic group profiles". http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/ethnic-profiles.aspx. 
  38. ↑ "Suomi Brasiliassa" (in fi). Embassy of Finland, Nicosia. http://www.finland.org.cy/public/default.aspx?nodeid=42774&contentlan=1&culture=fi-FI. 
  39. ↑ "Population". Statistics Finland. http://tilastokeskus.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure. 
  40. ↑ "Suomalaisten esi-isät olivat maahanmuuttajia seilatessaan Suomenlahden yli – perillä odottivat muinaisgermaaniset asukkaat" (in fi). 10 September 2020. https://www.lansi-uusimaa.fi/uutissuomalainen/2984736. 
  41. ↑ "Finn noun" The Oxford Dictionary of English (revised edition). Ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Tampere University of Technology. 3 August 2007 [1] Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  42. ↑ Rapo, Markus. "Tilastokeskus – Suomen väestö 2006". http://tilastokeskus.fi/til/vaerak/2006/vaerak_2006_2007-03-23_tie_001.html. 
  43. ↑ "PX-Web – Valitse taulukko". http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/fi/StatFin/StatFin__vrm__vaerak/?tablelist=true. 
  44. ↑ "Êîìè íàðîä / Ôèííî-óãðû / Íàðîäû / Ôèííû-èíãåðìàíëàíäöû". http://www.kominarod.ru/finno-ugry/nations/inger/. 
  45. ↑ "Traditionally, immigrants were described in English and most other languages by an adjective indicating the new country of residence and a noun indicating their country of origin or their ethnic group. The term "Sweden Finns" corresponds to this naming method. Immigrants to the U.S. have, however, always been designated the "other way around" by an adjective indicating the ethnic or national origin and a noun indicating the new country of residence, for example "Finnish Americans" (never "American Finns"). The term "Finnish Swedes" corresponds to this more modern naming method that is increasingly used in most countries and languages because it emphasises the status as full and equal citizens of the new country while providing information about cultural roots. (For more information about these different naming methods see Swedish-speaking Finns.) Other possible modern terms are "Finnish ethnic minority in Sweden" and "Finnish immigrants". These may be preferable because they make a clear distinction between these two very different population groups for which use of a single term is questionable and because "Finnish Swedes" is often used like "Finland Swedes" to mean "Swedish-speaking Finns". It should perhaps also be pointed out that many Finnish and Swedish speakers are unaware that the English word "Finn" elsewhere than in this article usually means "a native or inhabitant of Finland" ("Finn". American Heritage Dictionary. 2000. http://www.bartleby.com/61/17/F0131700.html. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 "Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura". http://www.sgr.fi/ct/ct51.html. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 https://www.hs.fi/kuukausiliite/art-2000009054909.html Script error: No such module "webarchive". (in Finnish)
  48. ↑ Kallio, Petri 1998: Suomi(ttavia etymologioita) – Virittäjä 4 / 1998.
  49. ↑ "Archived copy". http://vesta.narc.fi/cgi-bin/db2www/fmu/tiedot?b_id=10&language=fin. 
  50. ↑ vanhempi mies "muinaissuomalaisessa kansanpuvussa" Mikkelin Tuukkalan löytöjen mukaan. https://www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:KK1123:1a#image. Retrieved 3 January 2020. 
  51. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. pp. 253–255. ISBN 9789518581300. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. pp. 269. ISBN 9789518581300. 
  53. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. pp. 275. ISBN 9789518581300. 
  54. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. pp. 275. ISBN 9789518581300. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. pp. 316–317. ISBN 9789518581300. 
  56. ↑ Helminen, MInna. "Legenda piispa Henrikistä ja Lallista". Otavan Opisto. http://opinnot.internetix.fi/fi/muikku2materiaalit/lukio/hi/hi5/2._kristinuskon_myota_osaksi_eurooppaa/07_legenda_piispa. 
  57. ↑ Heimo is often mistranslated as "tribe", but a heimo is a dialectal and cultural kinship rather than a genetic kinship, and represents a much larger and disassociated group of people. Suomalaiset heimot Script error: No such module "webarchive".. From the book Hänninen, K. Kansakoulun maantieto ja kotiseutuoppi yksiopettajaisia kouluja varten. Osakeyhtiö Valistus, Raittiuskansan Kirjapaino Oy, Helsinki 1929, neljäs painos. The excerpt from a 1929 school book shows the generalized concept. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Script error: No such module "In lang".
  58. ↑ Sedergren, J (2002) Evakko – elokuva ja romaani karjalaispakolaisista"Ennen & nyt 3/02, Jari Sedergren: Evakko - elokuva ja romaani pakolaisuudesta". http://www.ennenjanyt.net/3-02/evakko.htm. . Ennen & nyt 3/2002. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Script error: No such module "In lang". The reference is a movie review, which however discusses the cultural phenomenon of the evacuation of Finnish Karelia using and analyzing the heimo concept rather generally.
  59. ↑ Topelius, Z. (1876) Maamme kirja. Lukukirja alimmaisille oppilaitoksille Suomessa. Toinen jakso. Suom. Johannes Bäckvall. Script error: No such module "webarchive". Script error: No such module "In lang". Retrieved 13 January 2008. Script error: No such module "In lang". Pp. 187 onwards shows the stereotypical generalizations of the heimos listed here.
  60. ↑ Malmberg, Ilkka; Vanhatalo, Tapio (1985). Heimoerot esiin ja härnäämään!. Weilin+Göös. pp. 5–6. ISBN 951-35-3386-7. 
  61. ↑ "Studies on Finnish attitudes and identities | The Finnish Cultural Foundation" (in en). http://skr.fi/en/cultural-activities/studies-finnish-attitudes-and-identities. 
  62. ↑ Nelis, Mari; Esko, Tõnu; Mägi, Reedik; Zimprich, Fritz; Zimprich, Alexander; Toncheva, Draga; Karachanak, Sena; Piskáčková, Tereza et al. (8 May 2009). "Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North–East" (in en). PLOS ONE 4 (5): e5472. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005472. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2675054. PMID 19424496. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Atlas of the Human Journey – The Genographic Project". 5 April 2008. https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html. 
  64. ↑ "Science: Stone Age Skeletons Suggest Europe's First Farmers Came From Southern Europe" (in en). AAAS – The World's Largest General Scientific Society. 26 April 2012. https://www.aaas.org/news/science-stone-age-skeletons-suggest-europe-s-first-farmers-came-southern-europe. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Lappalainen, T; Koivumäki, S; Salmela, E; Huoponen, K; Sistonen, P; Savontaus, M. L.; Lahermo, P (2006). "Regional differences among the Finns: A Y-chromosomal perspective". Gene 376 (2): 207–15. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2006.03.004. PMID 16644145. 
  66. ↑ Rootsi, Siiri; Zhivotovsky, Lev A; Baldovič, Marian; Kayser, Manfred; Kutuev, Ildus A; Khusainova, Rita; Bermisheva, Marina A; Gubina, Marina et al. (2007). "A counter-clockwise northern route of the Y-chromosome haplogroup N from Southeast Asia towards Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics 15 (2): 204–211. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201748. ISSN 1018-4813. PMID 17149388. 
  67. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. p. 95. ISBN 9789518581300.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 Tambets, Kristiina; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Hudjashov, Georgi; Ilumäe, Anne-Mai; Rootsi, Siiri; Honkola, Terhi; Vesakoski, Outi; Atkinson, Quentin et al. (21 September 2018). "Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations". Genome Biology 19 (1): 139. doi:10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1. ISSN 1474-7596. PMC 6151024. PMID 30241495. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Zhernakova, Daria V.; Brukhin, Vladimir; Malov, Sergey; Oleksyk, Taras K.; Koepfli, Klaus Peter; Zhuk, Anna; Dobrynin, Pavel; Kliver, Sergei et al. (January 2020). "Genome-wide sequence analyses of ethnic populations across Russia". Genomics 112 (1): 442–458. doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2019.03.007. ISSN 1089-8646. PMID 30902755. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30902755/. 
  70. ↑ Pankratov, Vasili; Montinaro, Francesco; Kushniarevich, Alena; Hudjashov, Georgi; Jay, Flora; Saag, Lauri; Flores, Rodrigo; Marnetto, Davide et al. (25 July 2020). "Differences in local population history at the finest level: the case of the Estonian population" (in en). European Journal of Human Genetics 28 (11): 1580–1591. doi:10.1038/s41431-020-0699-4. ISSN 1476-5438. PMC 7575549. PMID 32712624. 
  71. ↑ Kushniarevich, Alena; Utevska, Olga; Chuhryaeva, Marina; Agdzhoyan, Anastasia; Dibirova, Khadizhat; Uktveryte, Ingrida; Möls, Märt; Mulahasanovic, Lejla et al. (2015-09-02). "Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data" (in en). PLOS ONE 10 (9): e0135820. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135820. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4558026. PMID 26332464. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Översti, Sanni; Majander, Kerttu; Salmela, Elina; Salo, Kati; Arppe, Laura; Belskiy, Stanislav; Etu-Sihvola, Heli; Laakso, Ville et al. (15 November 2019). "Översti, S., Majander, K., Salmela, E. et al. Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry. Sci Rep 9, 16883 (2019).". Scientific Reports 9 (1): 16883. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8. PMC 6858343. PMID 31729399. "Finns are also genetically distinct from their neighboring populations and form outliers in the genetic variation within Europe. This genetic uniqueness derives from both reduced genetic diversity and an Asian influence to the gene pool.". 
  73. ↑ Lao, Oscar; Lu, Timothy T.; Nothnagel, Michael; Junge, Olaf; Freitag-Wolf, Sandra; Caliebe, Amke; Balascakova, Miroslava; Bertranpetit, Jaume et al. (2008). "Correlation between Genetic and Geographic Structure in Europe". Current Biology 18 (16): 1241–1248. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049. ISSN 0960-9822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049. 
  74. ↑ Santos, Patrícia; Gonzàlez-Fortes, Gloria; Trucchi, Emiliano; Ceolin, Andrea; Cordoni, Guido; Guardiano, Cristina; Longobardi, Giuseppe; Barbujani, Guido (2020). "More Rule than Exception: Parallel Evidence of Ancient Migrations in Grammars and Genomes of Finno-Ugric Speakers" (in en). Genes 11 (12): 1491. doi:10.3390/genes11121491. ISSN 2073-4425. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/11/12/1491. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Nelis (2009). "Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North-East". PLOS ONE 4 (5): e5472. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005472. PMC 2675054. PMID 19424496. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Salmela (2011). "Swedish Population Substructure Revealed by Genome-Wide Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Data". PLOS ONE 6 (2): e16747. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016747. PMC 3036708. PMID 21347369. 
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Jakkula (2008). "The Genome-wide Patterns of Variation Expose Significant Substructure in a Founder Population". The American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (6): 787–794. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.005. PMC 2668058. PMID 19061986. 
  78. ↑ Jeong, Choongwon; Balanovsky, Oleg; Lukianova, Elena; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Flegontov, Pavel; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; Immel, Alexander; Wang, Chuan-Chao et al. (2019-04-29). "The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia" (in en). Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (6): 966–976. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 6542712. PMID 31036896. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0878-2. 
  79. ↑ Lamnidis, Thiseas C.; Majander, Kerttu; Jeong, Choongwon; Salmela, Elina; Wessman, Anna; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Khartanovich, Valery; Balanovsky, Oleg et al. (27 November 2018). "Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe" (in en). Nature Communications 9 (1): 5018. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6258758. PMID 30479341. "This model, however, does not fit well for present-day populations from north-eastern Europe such as Saami, Russians, Mordovians, Chuvash, Estonians, Hungarians, and Finns: they carry additional ancestry seen as increased allele sharing with modern East Asian populations1,3,9,10. Additionally, within the Bolshoy population, we observe the derived allele of rs3827760 in the EDAR gene, which is found in near-fixation in East Asian and Native American populations today, but is extremely rare elsewhere37, and has been linked to phenotypes related to tooth shape38 and hair morphology39 (Supplementary Data 2). To further test differential relatedness with Nganasan in European populations and in the ancient individuals in this study, we calculated f4(Mbuti, Nganasan; Lithuanian, Test) (Fig. 3). Consistent with f3-statistics above, all the ancient individuals and modern Finns, Saami, Mordovians and Russians show excess allele sharing with Nganasan when used as Test populations.". 
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Salmela, Elina; Lappalainen, Tuuli; Fransson, Ingegerd; Andersen, Peter M.; Dahlman-Wright, Karin; Fiebig, Andreas; Sistonen, Pertti; Savontaus, Marja-Liisa et al. (2008-10-24). "Genome-Wide Analysis of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Uncovers Population Structure in Northern Europe" (in en). PLOS ONE 3 (10): e3519. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003519. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2567036. PMID 18949038. 
  81. ↑ Häkkinen, Jaakko (2011). "Seven Finnish populations: the greatest intranational substructure in Europe". http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/jphakkin/SevenFinnish.xps. 
  82. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. ISBN 9789518581300.
  83. ↑ Assessing Finnish Y-chromosomal haplogroups using genotyping array data – Towards understanding the role of Y in complex disease – Annina Preussner 2021 University of Helsinki
  84. ↑ Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria. Finnish Literature Society. p. 94. ISBN 9789518581300.
  85. ↑ "Lehti: Geneettinen analyysi kertoo maakuntasi" (in fi). 2008. https://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/a/200810248480655. 
  86. ↑ Script error: No such module "In lang". Lehikoinen, L. (1986) D.E.D Europaeus kirjasuomen kehittäjänä ja tutkijana Script error: No such module "webarchive".. Virittäjä, 1986, 178–202. with German abstract. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Aikio, A & Aikio, A. (2001). Heimovaelluksista jatkuvuuteen – suomalaisen väestöhistorian tutkimuksen pirstoutuminen. Muinaistutkija 4/2001. Script error: No such module "In lang". Retrieved 1-7-2008 Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  88. ↑ "Kaltio – Pohjoinen kulttuurilehti – Uusin kaltio". http://www.kaltio.fi/index.php?53. 
  89. ↑ "Kaltio – Pohjoinen kulttuurilehti – Uusin kaltio". http://www.kaltio.fi/index.php?384. 
  90. ↑ The debate (in Finnish) is accessible in Kaltio's website Script error: No such module "webarchive".. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
  91. ↑ "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: a Y chromosome perspective.". Science 290 (5494): 1155–9. 10 November 2000. doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155. PMID 11073453. 
  92. ↑ "Patterns of male-specific inter-population divergence in Europe, West Asia and North Africa". Ann Hum Genet 64(Pt 5) (Pt 5): 395–412. September 2000. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.2000.6450395.x. PMID 11281278. https://art.torvergata.it/bitstream/2108/44427/1/Malaspina_AHG_2000.pdf. Retrieved 16 September 2019. 
  93. ↑ Torroni, Antonio, Hans-Jürgen Bandelt, Vincent Macaulay, Martin Richards, Fulvio Cruciani, Chiara Rengo, Vicente Martinez-Cabrera (2001). "A signal, from human mtDNA, of postglacial recolonization in Europe". American Journal of Human Genetics 69 (4): 844–52. doi:10.1086/323485. PMC 1226069. PMID 11517423. 
  94. ↑ Achilli, Alessandro, Chiara Rengo, Chiara Magri, Vincenza Battaglia, Anna Olivieri, Rosaria Scozzari, Fulvio Cruciani (2004). "The molecular dissection of mtDNA haplogroup H confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian glacial refuge was a major source for the European gene pool". The American Journal of Human Genetics 75 (5): 910–918. doi:10.1086/425590. PMC 1182122. PMID 15382008. 
  95. ↑ Pala, Maria, Anna Olivieri, Alessandro Achilli, Matteo Accetturo, Ene Metspalu, Maere Reidla, Erika Tamm (2012). "Mitochondrial DNA Signals of Late Glacial Recolonization of Europe from Near Eastern Refugia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 90 (5): 915–924. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.04.003. PMC 3376494. PMID 22560092. 

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